The Sporting Rifle (In ten parts)

by E. A. Leopold

Western Field Vol 5, 1904

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THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART I. (vol 4, No.2, Mar 1904 - page 149)

MANY mistakes are made by sportsmen in the selection of a rifle or hunting big game be cause of lack of a thorough appreciation of the main points of difference between the sporting rifle and the military arm. The invention of the jacketed bullet paved the way for the general adoption of smokeless powders, but a vast amount of experiment was necessary in order to adapt the weapons to the new conditions. On account of the great expense attendant upon this work, the initial experiments were conducted under governmental supervision and the natural result was the production of a military rifle. Taking this rifle as a basis, the private manufacturers then went to work, and, after making a few minor changes, recommended the weapons as suitable for hunting purposes.

After a lapse of eight or ten years we still find many hunters using long-range military cartridges for short range shooting at game. The modern military rifle must be, and is, a long-range rifle. It must be capable of placing twenty consecutive shots in a target six feet high and twelve feet wide at a range of 1,000 yards, under average conditions as to weather. To attain this result requires that the bullet shall be more than four calibers in length. This refers to the small-bore smokeless rifle, the black-powder military rifle being obsolete. The long bullet requires a steep pitch of rifling to give it sufficient rotary velocity to keep it point on, and the short twist produces excessive friction and heat and shortens the life of the barrel, besides requiring a steel-jacketed projectile, which is very expensive. As the long bullet is driven at a high velocity, 2,000 feet per second, it follows that the recoil will he particularly vicious unless a heavy weapon is adopted, and a heavy rifle is not a desirable hunting weapon, excepting in certain special cases where dangerous game is encountered.

These statements indicate that the best rifle for game shooting is the one that uses a short missile, and a further discussion of the subject will serve to emphasize the same fact.

The object of the sportsman is to kill the game quickly, and this is best accomplished by the employment of a projectile of comparatively large diameter or one that will expand on striking the game. Many devices have been tried to insure the lateral expansion of the head of the bullet upon impact, but it is believed that nothing that is absolutely reliable in this regard has yet been produced, on account of the variable resistance encountered by the bullet in striking different kinds of game or different parts of the same animal.

The uncertainty of the expansive feature makes it desirable that we use a bullet of sufficient diameter to produce the required shock in case it should fail to upset at all. The 6 mm. (.236 cal.) can not be regarded as a thoroughly reliable weapon for such game as the Virginia deer, although it gives a higher velocity (-'.500 f. s.) than any other rifle manufactured in America, and high velocity, generally, means killing power, for two reasons: first, the energy of a projectile is, amongst other factors, proportioned to the square of the velocity; and, second, the shock produced by the impact is greater with the higher velocity because a portion of the tissue of the animal becomes a projectile through direct collision, and its velocity will depend upon the velocity of the bullet with which it comes in collision. In the case of the 6 mm. bullet, if fired broadside at a deer, striking central and failing to upset at the head-on impact, it would make a very small hole and emerge at the opposite side retaining about 80 or 90 per cent of its energy. The penetration of the full-mantled bullet is 60 pine boards, each board being seven-eighths of an inch in thickness. Supposing that six boards offer as much resistance as a deer standing broadside, the .236 caliber rifle would shoot through ten deer standing alongside of each other, and would expend only 10 per cent of its energy on one deer. This illustration shows clearly how the sportsman may be deceived by overestimating the killing power of a small-bore rifle through judging it entirely from the energy of the projectile.

The 6.3 mm. (.256 cal.) rifle is open to the same objections but in a lesser degree. It is a fine military weapon and accurate for target shooting at 1,000 yards. The .30-30-160 is the smallest charge which may be considered suitable for game as large as the Virginia deer. A rifle or carbine to take this cartridge, with twenty-inch barrel, would weigh about six and one-half pounds—a handy weapon which a man of average strength could carry all day and use with precision at all times. The velocity of the 160-grain bullet is approximately 1,900 f. s., and its penetration is twelve boards for soft-point bullet. The length of bullet is 3.13 calibers, making it effective at the mid-ranges— say 500 to 600 yards —which is a much greater distance than the sportsman will care to fire at game. The velocity of recoil of the six and one-half-pound rifle is 7.3 feet per second, and the energy 5.4 foot-pounds, indicating that the weapon is a pleasant one to shoot, as the recoil is stopped in a space of one and one-half inches by the application of a shoulder pressure of 43 pounds.

If the military cartridge (.30-40-220) were used, the rifle should weigh eight and one-half pounds, giving a muzzle velocity of projectile of 1,960 f. s. and penetration of thirteen boards with soft-nose bullet. The velocity of recoil is 7.9 f. s. and energy 8.3 foot pounds, indicating the requirement of 66 pounds shoulder pressure to stop the recoil in a space of one and one-half inches. Such a gun is heavy to carry, slow in use, and has a distinctly unpleasant kick. It is powerful enough to kill an elephant, and a dangerous weapon to use in a thickly-settled country. The projectile is 4.1 calibers in length, giving it excellent qualities for target shooting at long range.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART II.  (vol 4, No.3, Apr 1904 - page 223-225)

THE “.32 special" is one of the most desirable of modern hunting arms. It is somewhat similar to the old .32-40-165, retaining all of the good qualities of that justly popular combination, and adding improvements which bring it down to date as a powerful smokeless weapon. The improvement in the gun consists of a nickel steel barrel capable of withstanding pressures generated by smokeless powder, and preventing it from wearing out rapidly when copper-jacketed bullets are used in it. The twist is one turn in sixteen inches, making it suitable for black powder and grooved leaden bullets, or smokeless powder and jacketed bullets, the standard weight of bullet in either case being 165 grains. The shell instead of being tapered is bottle necked, presenting a cylindrical form inside for the perfect fitting of the bullet.

The black powder load for this rifle is the same as for the old .32-40, giving a muzzle velocity of 1,385 f. s, and a fairly good killing range of 250 yards (or more could the game be hit with any certainty with such a high curve bullet). The smokeless cartridge gives a muzzle velocity' of 2,000 f. s. and its killing power is twice that of the black powder cartridge, i. e., in all cases where the game would be standing in such position as to offer sufficient resistance to stop the bullet, such as shots at deer from the front or from the rear. In broadside shots the black and the smokeless cartridges would be nearly on an equality, the smokeless still holding the advantage of greater effect because of the greater shock always accompanying high velocity, and greater accuracy at unknown distances resulting from the much flatter trajectory.

The black powder cartridge for this weapon is useful for target practice, being cheaply produced and resulting in less wear in the gun. Supposing the rifle to weigh seven and a half pounds, then when firing the smokeless cartridge the velocity of recoil would he, theoretically, 7 f. s., and energy of recoil 5.7 foot pounds.

To stop the recoil in a space of one and a half inches would require a shoulder pressure of forty six pounds. Those hunters of large game who seriously object to heavy recoil would do well to investigate the qualities of this rifle, as with a moderate amount of recoil it is powerful enough to kill deer, caribou, elk, moose and bear at all ordinary hunting ranges.

The .33 calibre smokeless rifle handles a projectile weighing 200 grains, giving it a velocity of 2,050 feet per second, producing an energy of 1.868 foot pounds, and making it more deadly on large game than the .32 special, especially at ranges beyond 200 yards, the extra length of bullet being much in its favor by giving it the power to overcome the resistance of the air. This quality would be appreciated where long shots have to be made occasionally, as in antelope shooting on the plains.

A rifle of this calibre weighing seven and a half pounds would have a theoretical velocity of recoil of 8.7 f. s., and energy of recoil of 8.8 foot pounds. To stop the gun in a space of one and a half inches would require an average shoulder pressure of seventy pounds.

The .35 calibre smokeless rifle, as now made by the Winchester Arms Company, handles a jacketed bullet weighing 250 grains, and the charge of smokeless powder gives it a velocity of 2, 1 50 feet per second. This weapon was, until quite recently, the most powerful made in this country. The large diameter and high velocity are mostly accountable for the large amount of work which this bullet will do. The bullet is also a long one, giving it power to overcome the resistance of the air and making it very deadly at distances far beyond the ranges at which game is generally killed. The heavy bullet is an advantage in enhancing the penetrative power in the case of large, dangerous and thick-skinned game at short range. The energy of this bullet is 2,580 foot pounds, indicating that it would penetrate seven feet four inches into a material that would offer an average resistance of 350 pounds.

If the rifle weighs eight and a half pounds the velocity of recoil will be 9.9 f. s., and energy thirteen foot pounds, which is equivalent to saying that it will require a push of 104 pounds to stop the recoil of the gun in a space of one and a half inches.

Some men would object to such a heavy recoil on account of the discomfort and possible injury resulting from it. There is also, generally, a loss of accuracy in off-hand shooting when the recoil of the piece is very severe. This loss of accuracy results from several causes, such as " flinching," " bracing up," and the " spring," " jump," and " flip " of the weapon. This latter class of errors, pertaining to the gun, are minimized by making the weapon thick and strong at the grip, and fastening the wooden stock very rigidly to the metallic breech piece. These thick heavy grips, used by the majority of American rifle manufacturers, give the weapons a rather clumsy appearance when compared with some of the high grade double rifles made abroad; but it is believed by many that the greater rigidity and accuracy resulting from the American plan more than offsets the lack of beauty and graceful outline. One of the best fastenings consists of a long bolt traversing the entire length of the butt-stock, its large slotted head being concealed under the butt-plate and the forward end being screwed into the breech frame. By the application of a large screw driver the two parts can be forced together more tightly than can be attained by any other system of construction in use at the present time. The long bolt system is peculiarly well adapted to the use of the sportsman, as he can remove the stock at any time and put it back in the best possible shape, regardless of the condition of the wood, whether very dry or swelled with moisture, and this without the employment of any tool excepting a screw driver.

Although the .35 calibre is one of the most useful and desirable calibres, it has been almost wholly ignored by gun makers, with one notable exception. The Massachusetts Arms Company of Chicopee Falls, Mass., manufactured a .35 calibre rifle during the entire term of their corporate existence, probably thirty years. The Maynard rifle, fabricated by this firm, was a light, compact weapon and always popular with those hunters who were satisfied with a single loader. The .35 calibre was made with twenty-inch barrel for hunting, and twenty-six-inch for target shooting. The shell was charged with thirty grains of black powder and the semi-cylindrical bullet was much heavier than those generally used in the cap-lock rifles so much in vogue thirty years ago. As a result of the difference in the weights of the projectiles of the two classes of arms at that date, it sometimes happened that the little six-pound Maynards beat the ponderous muzzle-loaders at a range of forty rods or even less.

In more recent years a few fine target rifles were made in .35 calibre, by Horace Warner and others who were engaged in that class of work.

Since the general adaptation of smokeless powder to sporting weapons, the .35 calibre comes prominently to the front, as it is probably the most suitable size for long range shooting, especially target shooting: under the new rapid-fire system which practically bars black powder and large calibres. The recoil of the hunting rifle of this calibre, as now made by the Winchester Company, could be very materially reduced by reducing the weight of the bullet; and this change would also improve the velocity and lower the trajectory at short range; the general result being increased killing power on deer and smaller game, and increased accuracy at ranges within 200 yards. The bullet I have in mind would be a partly jacketed missile with soft point and weighing about 200 grains.

The regular Winchester shell, which is 2 13-32 inches in length, could be retained, and this with its standard charge of smokeless powder would produce a muzzle velocity of approximately 2,400 foot seconds, which is greater than that of any other strictly bunting rifle made in this country, or probably, in any country. The increased velocity would increase the mushrooming qualities of the bullet, thereby making it a quicker killer on ordinary game at short range, besides reducing the amount necessary to hold ahead on running game, and flatten the trajectory at ordinary game shooting ranges. What I have said in favor of a 200-grain bullet should not be construed as unfavorable to, or a criticism of, the standard 250-grain bullet which would show superiority at 500 to 600 yards range, also at short range in the case of thick skinned animals requiring the employment of a missile having great penetrative qualities. If it be a fact, as heretofore intimated, that the .35 calibre cartridge possesses special advantages, both for hunting purposes and for target shooting at various ranges, then it would seem to be desirable to provide several different lengths of projectiles suitable to fill these various requirements.

The 250-grain bullet is 3.22 calibres in length. A jacketed bullet for long range shooting should approximate 4 calibres in length. This long bullet would require a moderately short twist of rifling to keep it point on at ranges of 1,000 to 1,500 yards—say one turn in fifteen inches would be approximate, but the exact pitch to give best results could only be determined through experiment. Mathematicians who are experts in gunnery have formulated tables showing the proper twists for the various lengths of projectiles of different calibres, but these tables were adapted to black powder conditions, j. e.. to moderate velocities, and they require modification to meet the new conditions inaugurated by the general adoption of jacketed bullets and smokeless powders.

A .35 calibre rifle, using smokeless powder, and a jacketed bullet 4 calibres in length, with hollow lead point, would be an excellent weapon for seal shooting on the Pacific Coast, where long shots are the rule, and where it is often necessary to make shots at distances of a half to three-quarters of a mile. Such rifles should be provided with a telescopic sight of low power having a large field (say a magnifying power of eight diameters, with a tube one inch in diameter or seven diameters with a seven-eighth-inch tube) so as to get the maximum illumination. In case the seal shooter should desire a glass of higher power he should have it made up in a larger tube so as to preserve the illumination, which is a most excellent quality in a hunting glass as it assists, in a measure, in making shots when the light is poor. The telescope should be so mounted on the rifle that it could slide back and forth in the mountings, in this way doing away with the danger of being struck in the face by the rear end of the instrument through the recoil of the piece when fired- The sliding mechanism also relieves the mountings of severe strain, and makes it possible to make, and hold, very fine adjustments. Another advantage, in many cases, is that the telescope can be pushed forward away from the breach to facilitate cleaning, loading, etc. The telescope here described is not a very low power, but is called " low power " to distinguish it from the kind that are generally used for target shooting, at rest; the powers of which range from twelve to eighteen diameters, and which are not suitable for game shooting, although they are sometimes used for that purpose.

The main reason that the high-power telescope is unsuitable for hunting purposes is because its field is necessarily small, which makes it difficult to align it quickly with sufficient accuracy to include the image of the game within its field. A chance to fire a shot at game is often lost by consuming too much time in preparation.

If the .35 calibre 300-grain bullet were given an initial velocity of 1,900 f. s. its energy at 500 yards would be 1,063 foot pounds, and at 1,000 yards 415 foot pounds. The .35 calibre 250-grain bullet, which has an initial velocity of 2,1 50 f. s., has an energy of 1,064 foot pounds at 500 yards, and 314 foot pounds at 1 ,000 yards. While the energies of the two bullets are practically equal at mid-range, the 300-grain bullet has one-third more energy and killing power than the 250-grain bullet at 1,000 yards. The 200-grain bullet, with an initial velocity of 2,400 f. s., would have an energy of 461 foot pounds at 500 yards range; sufficient to kill game not larger than the common deer. An eight and a half-pound rifle for this cartridge would have a recoil of 10.7 foot pounds, requiring a shoulder pressure of sixty-five pounds to stop it in a space of two inches. The 250-grain bullet in a weapon of equal weight, producing the ballistic effects above noted, would produce a recoil of thirteen foot pounds, or seventy-eight pounds pressure over a space of two inches; while the 300-grain bullet with the velocity above suggested, in a gun of equal weight, would produce a recoil of 14.1 foot pounds, which could be stopped in a space of two inches by applying a force of eighty-eight pounds.

This latter weapon is only intended for shooting game at long range and would be unsuitable for any other purpose.

The .35 calibre rifle with 200 or 250-grain bullet would be a suitable weapon for killing the largest game in America for those who would not object to the recoil. The figures given above for recoil are obtained by the usual method of computation, and are probably less in every case than the actual results obtainable by careful experiment. Some actual measurements have been made and will be discussed later on.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART III.  (vol 4, No. 4, May 1904 - page 305-307)

[ed. This section contains much mathification, I have not done much in the way of verifying the formulas and figures]

TIME was that the value of a sporting rifle was mainly gauged by the number of cartridges that its magazine would hold. The first question always was: " How many times will it shoot?" This question was invariably asked by boys; and, generally, by men who had no practical knowledge of hunting, but who wished to create the impression that they knew the fine points of a sporting weapon. At the present time the questions asked are: "Will it kill moose and bear? " " How large is the bore? " " What is the energy of the bullet?”

The idea seems to prevail in some quarters that the greater the energy of the bullet the more valuable the weapon. The men who persistently advocate big bores and heavy charges have nothing to say about the killing power of the gun to the rear; the energy of recoil, and the effect of the kick of the gun upon the shooter. Many sportsmen who fully understand these matters refrain from making, any public comment for fear it should be said that they are afraid of the recoil. They forget that it requires real courage to risk the imputation of the lack of it. Some men can stand more recoil than others without being permanently injured by it. Heavy pounding is not beneficial to health, but leads to inaccurate shooting in most cases. The main qualities required to enable a man to stand heavy recoil are weight, strength and skill. The state of a person's health must, of course, be taken into consideration in deciding a question of this kind. If a person is in fine physical condition he will take a hard rap on the shoulder without serious discomfort; if he be standing clear of all obstructions his shoulder will recede with the gun a sufficient amount to prevent permanent injury. If a sportsman is not in good health he should be careful to select a weapon having a light recoil, otherwise his shooting is liable to be erratic, through " flinching," a habit that is liable to cling to a sportsman for many years after once being acquired. We have heard of knocking game down with a heavy bullet, but nothing said about the sportsman being knocked down by the recoil of his piece. It is a fact that the momentum of the gun is equal to the momentum of the bullet, and this equilibrium between the momentum of the gun and projectile can not be disturbed by varying the weight of gun. The velocity of recoil may be reduced by increasing the weight of gun, other factors remaining constant, but we do not thereby reduce the momentum, as the heavier gun with less velocity has the same power to throw the sportsman off his balance as has the lighter gun with greater velocity. The momentum is produced by the force of expansion of the powder gas, which pushes the bullet forward and the gun to the rear with equal force; and as the time of action of this force is the same on the bullet as on the gun, equal momenta to the front and to the rear are produced. The same follows from the well-known law that action and reaction are opposite and equal. If the sportsman should stand in a light canoe of narrow beam and fire a heavy charge in a direction approximately at right angles to the keel, he would be liable to go overboard backward. If, however, the gun should misfire, he would be apt to pitch forward on account of having thrown his weight against the gun to stop the recoil which failed to materialize. If the sportsman were standing on land he would place one foot far enough back to give him sufficient purchase to bring a proper portion of the weight of his body into such a position as to enable him to balance the momentum of his gun. The heavy man has the advantage in cases of heavy recoil, as he may adopt a more graceful position when firing, and depend upon the excessive inertia of his body to neutralize the momentum of the gun. The habit of bracing up, and throwing the weight of the body forward to balance the recoil is not conducive to fine accuracy in shooting; but, fortunately, fine accuracy is not generally required when using rifles of large caliber on dangerous game, the mark being very large and the distance very short, as a rule.

The momentum of a moving body is a measure of the force required to bring it to a state of rest in a unit of time, the generally accepted unit being one second. The unit of measure of force is generally the pound avoirdupois. When we say the momentum of a bullet is two pounds, we mean that it would require a constant resistance of two pounds to bring it to a state of rest in one second of time. One pound pressure would stop the bullet in two seconds, and one half pound in four seconds.

Momentum is a time effect, the effect which a constant force F produces in a time t. and we represent its value by Q. Q equals F multiplied by t, or, simply, Ft, which means the same thing. An examination of this equation shows that the momentum is directly proportional to the force, and also to the time. If any two of these factors are known, the third can be found by a very simple computation. If Q equals Ft, then F equals Q divided by t, and t equals Q divided by F.

It is also essential to know the mass, or quantity of matter considered in order to solve problems in which velocities are given, and the force and time are not known. The unit of mass is, approximately, thirty-two pounds, which is sufficiently close to satisfy the demands of the present discussion. The exact value of a mass, M, depends on the acceleration due to gravity, and varies slightly according to the location. At a place where a body would fall thirty-two and one sixth feet, under the influence of gravity alone, in one second, the value of M is thirty-two and one-sixth pounds, but, for the sake of avoiding complications we will say M equals thirty-two pounds, and Q equals Mv; in which v equals the velocity in feet per second, often written foot-seconds, or f. s.

If the rifleman will commit to memory these two simple equations— No. 1, Q equals Mv; No. 2, Q equals Ft, he will soon be able to solve many interesting problems relating to the penetrations and killing qualities of bullets, and the recoil of weapons. It is important that the sportsman should understand these matters before he purchases his weapon, otherwise the chances are that he will make a mistake, even though he gets advice from a more experienced rifleman, for the reason that the expert is quite liable to be a man who can take more recoil without inconvenience than the average tyro. It is desirable that the sportsman should have some knowledge of the elementary principles of mechanics in order that he may be able to select a weapon thoroughly suited to his uses, and also that he may have a clear idea of the capabilities of the weapon which he selects, and a solid foundation upon which to build up skill in its use.

In former chapters we have indulged in a slight discussion of some of the principal qualities of modern smokeless rifles, from .236 to .35 caliber, the latter a very powerful weapon with excellent killing qualities, but rather more recoil than would be relished by many sportsmen, and, before taking up a still more powerful weapon, let us go back to the well-tested and justly popular .32—40—165 rifle, and make an application of the principles of momentum is illustrated by the penetration of projectile, and recoil of gun.

What is the momentum, Q, of the .32 caliber bullet, weighing 165 grains, the velocity being 1,385 f. s.? Q equals Mv. As the unit of mass M is thirty-two pounds, or 224,000 grains, we get the weight of bullet in terms of the mass by dividing 224,000 into 165, the result being .000736, which we multiply by the velocity, 1.385 multiplied by .000736 equals 1. 01936 equals Q equals the momentum of bullet. The bullet being in a state of rest, an effective moving force of 1. 01936 pounds acting upon it for one second of time would give it a velocity of 1,385 f. s., and, consequently, the bullet having attained this velocity, it would be brought to a state of rest in one second by applying a resistance of 1. 01936 pounds. The distance it would travel during the one second of time in which it was opposed by a force of a trifle more than one pound, would be equal to the mean or average velocity, or one half of the maximum velocity. 1,385 divided by 2 equals 692 feet, equals the distance the bullet would penetrate a medium which offered a mean resistance of 1 .0 1 936 pounds. If the resisting medium were a succession of pine boards, say seven-eighths of an inch in thickness, the resistance would be enormously increased, and both the time T, and the depth of penetration would be proportionately decreased, for (equation 2), Q equals Ft; if F is increased t must be proportionately decreased. The full jacketed bullet penetrates 1 8 boards, each seven-eights of an inch in thickness, or a total of 1.3 it feet of pine at a mean velocity of 692 feet per second. If the bullet travels at a velocity of 692 feet per second, to travel 1,311 feet would require as many seconds as 692 is contained times in 1.31 1, which is .ooi8q. We now have the time, .00189 seconds, and the momentum. 1.01936 pounds, and wish to find the resistance of the target, the force F of the above equation. If Q equals Ft, then F equals Q divided by t, 1. 01 936 divided by .00189 equals 539 equals F equals the mean resistance of the pine target, 539 pounds. The plain lead bullet and the soft nose bullet penetrate eight and one-half boards, and a computation similar to the above shows that the mean resistance in this case is 1.141 pounds.

The full-jacketed bullet maintains its original diameter, while the soft bullet is upset to a larger diameter in penetrating the target, which accounts for the greater force it encounters. The amount of upset can be computed by an application of the well-known law that the resistance is proportional to the square of the diameter of projectile. The square of the diameter of the jacketed bullet while penetrating the target is .3ZX.32 equals .1024. Let x equal the square of the soft bullet under similar conditions. Then. .1024:539"*: 1141. Solving the proportion, x equals .2167, which is the square of the diameter of the soft bullet. The square root of .2167 is .465, the diameter of the soft bullet after upset.

The destruction wrought per unit of penetration is proportional to the cross-section area, and this is proportional to the square of the diameter. In the case above the destructive quality of the soft bullet exceeds that of the full mantled by more than 100 per cent. In penetrating an animal the soft bullet and the soft point bullet will always have a distinct advantage over the full mantled projectile, on account of the wider holes they will cut, not only giving a more severe shock to the nervous system, but causing a more profuse hemorrhage and enhancing the chances of being able to follow wounded game on dry leaves.

All of these advantages might not follow every shot, but some of them would generally appear. The amount of upset of a soft bullet on impact on game can not be exactly decided beforehand, as variable factors influence the result, but there is no part of the body of any game animal so devoid of inertia that it would fail to upset a soft bullet traveling at any ordinary velocity, say upward of 800 foot seconds.

Bullets generally pass entirely through game animals, and arc therefore lost, but r. considerable proportion will stop under the skin on the far side, especially in the case of end on or quartering shots; and the careful hunter will save such missiles for future examination and study. The superiority of the destructiveness of the soft-point bullet over the jacketed per unit of penetration is also governed largely by the velocity; the gain in some cases being as much as 200 per cent. One of the interesting and valuable features of this great gain is the fact that it is attained without punishment to the shooter, the recoil of the piece being the same in cither case. It is a fact, not always recognized by sportsmen, that attempts to increase the shocking power of the projectile in any other way result in increasing the shock of the gun on the shooter. Nothing could be more simple than increasing the killing power by increasing the caliber and the charge of powder and lead, and nothing more plain than the fact that such change must always be attended by an increase in the recoil of the weapon, resulting in increased discomfort to the shooter, and damaging the accuracy of the shooting. The statement that the momentum of the gun in recoil is equal to the momentum of the projectile is not strictly correct, unless we include the charge of powder as a portion of the projectile, and to get very accurate results, sufficiently so to agree with experiments made with the aid of the ballistic pendulum, we must consider the bullet and wads, if any, separately from the powder charge, and give to the latter an estimated velocity of about 3,000 f. a. This is in accordance with Sebert's formula, and I have found it to give better results with either black or smokeless powder than the system which considered only the mean velocity of the powder from the time of its ignition until the bullet leaves the muzzle, or one-half the muzzle velocity of the bullet.

I do not consider that the 3,000 f. s. is the maximum velocity of the powder and powder gas, but that it is approximately a mean for the time beginning with its ignition and ending when equilibrium is restored in side the bore of rifle with the outside atmospheric pressure. This takes into account the blast at the muzzle after the bullet has traveled several feet away from the gun, as, indeed, it should, for a long stream of powder and gas issues from the muzzle and keeps up a pressure upon the breach until equilibrium of gas and atmospheric pressures are established; this continued pressure on the breech constantly adds momentum to the recoil of rifle, and any system of computation which ignores it must fall short of telling the whole truth.

We have found that the momentum of bullet is 1.01936 pound-seconds. As action and reaction are opposite and equal, the same amount of momentum must have been imparted to the gun at the same time that it was imparted to the bullet. The powder also obtained momentum and at the same time an equal amount was imparted to the gun, which amount we will measure as follows: Powder charge, weight 40 grains, or in terms of M, 40 divided by 224000 equals .0001 785. The mean velocity being 3.000 f. s., Mv would be .0001785 multiplied by 3,000 equals .5355 equals Q. Adding the two momenta, 1. 01936 plus .5355 equals 1.55486, the momentum of the gun. Supposing the rifle weighs 7.5 pounds, its weight in terms of mass is 7.5 divided by 32 equals .2347. To find the velocity of recoil. Q equals Mv, then v equals Q divided by M. 1.55486 divided by .2347 equals 6.63, the velocity of recoil m feet per second.

To find the shoulder pressure to stop gun in 1.5 inches : The mean velocity of recoil is 6.63 divided by 2 equals 3.32 f. s, 1.5 inches divided by .12$ feet. Time equals .125 divided 3.32 equals .03765 seconds. F equals Q divided by t. 1.554S3 divided by .03765 equals 41 pounds shoulder pressure. Other features of penetration and recoil, such as " work " and " energy," will be explained later.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART IV. (vol 4, No. 5, Jun 1904 - page 384-386)

WHEN a bullet penetrates any substance it does work. It meets with and overcomes resistance. It is the overcoming of the resistance which constitutes the work which it does. The amount of work done is proportional to the resistance—which may be measured in pounds— and also to the distance or space passed over while overcoming the resistance. The bullet that penetrates fourteen boards does twice as much work as the one which penetrates seven boards, and half as much as the bullet which penetrates twenty-eight boards, the same kind of projectile being employed in each case. The ability of the bullet to do work results from its energy and the energy is impressed upon It by the exploding powder charge.

The work which the powder does may be divided into two parts; prejudicial, and useful. The prejudicial work done by the powder is that which results in friction, heat and destruction of parts of the barrel and bullet. The useful part of the work is that which imparts velocity to the bullet, producing kinetic energy —the energy of a moving body. In speaking of the work done by the powder, the useful work- only is considered, unless otherwise stated. The work done is equal to the product of the force into the space worked over.

The unit of work is the raising of one pound of matter vertically one foot, and Is called a " foot-pound."

If the rifle barrel Is two feet long, exclusive of chamber, and the mean force of the powder is 1.000 pounds, then the work which the powder does on the bullet Is 1.000 times 2 equals 2,000 foot pounds; and. If the rifle Is 250 times as heavy as the projectile, then it will recoil, while the powder Is acting upon it, 2 divided by 250 equals .008 of a foot. The work which the powder does on the gun is, therefore, 1.000 multiplied by .008 equals 8 foot pounds. If the powder has done 2,000 foot pounds of effective work on the bullet, then the bullet must overcome 2,000 foot pounds of resistance in being brought to rest; and, from this data, its destructiveness, penetration and killing powers may be estimated.

Similarly, in the case of the rifle, its kinetic energy is the result of 8 foot pounds of work, and it will do 8 foot pounds of work on the shooter before being brought to rest. This is on the supposition that the gun is free to recoil; but, in actual practice, If the weapon is held to the shoulder, there must be some interference, and the gun will attain less velocity and develop less energy, so that instead of the bullet having 250 times as much energy as the gun, the difference is still greater. The reduction of velocity of recoil of gun on account of being held to the shoulder will be discussed later. Just now it is desired to call particular attention to the difference between momentum and energy.

In a former chapter it was shown that the momentum of the gun, and the momentum of the projectiles (bullet, wads, and powder) are equal. It is now shown that. In a particular case (an ordinary combination of gun, bullet and powder charge), the energy of the projectile is, approximately, 250 times as great as the energy of the gun In recoil. Momentum determines the motions of bodies after Impact, while energy determines their ability to compress, break or damage each other. As before stated, the momentum of the gun can not be changed by decreasing its weight. If the momentum of a light gun shooting a heavy charge throws the sportsman off his balance, the momentum of a heavy gun shooting a similar charge would have an approximately similar effect. But, the punishment, the bruising effect of the recoil, is inversely proportional to the weight of the gun. and directly proportional to its energy, and to the square of its velocity. Momentum is proportional to the velocity, while energy is proportional to the square of the velocity. The same holds true with the projectile; doubling its velocity quadruples its destructive power.

While the principles of momentum are useful In estimating the equilibrium of the shooter, the velocity of recoil of the piece, etc., there are other and more important matters to be investigated, such as the killing power of the bullet, and the bruising power of the gun, and these are best estimated by a consideration of the principles of work and Its resulting energy.

The formula for work is as follows: Let F equal a constant force; let s equal the space over which F acts, and let U equal the work done by F; then U equals Fs.

When a bullet is fired from a rifle the work done on the bullet, by the powder, results in kinetic energy, vis viva, or living force. Hence, the kinetic energy of a moving bullet equals the work stored in it, and this may be recorded in foot pounds.

Kinetic energy, represented by K equals yiidv'. In which M Is the mass of the body considered, and v Its velocity.

For our present purpose it is more convenient to use simple weight units (pounds) Instead of mass units, and the expression becomes: K equals Wv* divided by 2g, in which W is the weight of the bullet, or the gun, as the case may be, In pounds; v2 the square of the velocity and 2g twice gravity, which may be taken as 64.3. Applying this to an ordinary case, the .32-40-165 rifle, what is the energy of this bullet, the velocity being 1,385 f. s. ? There are 7,000 grains In a pound, and. as the bullet weighs 165 grains, it weighs as many pounds as 7,000 is contained times in 165, which is .0236.

Our equation then becomes:

K equals .0236 multiplied by 1.385 multiplied by 1,385 divided by 64.3 equals 706 foot pounds. The meaning of this Is that the bullet has had 706 foot pounds of effective work impressed upon it and it must do 706 foot pounds of work before being brought to rest. It will penetrate one foot into a medium offering a mean resistance of 706 pounds. If the body of a deer offers a mean resistance of 353 pounds to this bullet it will penetrate two feet into the deer, or else pass clear through and expend the balance of its energy on some other object. The bullet will not stop until it has done 706 foot pounds of work.

Applying the formula for work to this case, we have:

U equals Fs equals 706 foot pounds. If the space, s. be 2 feet, then the force, F, must be 706 divided by 2 equals 353 pounds.

When impressing velocity upon a projectile we use force, when retarding we use resistance, so that, when discussing the penetration of a bullet we may write the equation

U equals Rs.

in which R equals the resistance In pounds. It therefore follows that

R equals F.

If a projectile exerts a force or pressure of 539 pounds on a pine target, then the target offers a resistance of 539 pounds' pressure to the passage of the bullet.

If the bullet from the .32-40 rifle were fired vertically upward in a vacuum the resistance would be the force of gravity, equal to the weight of the ball, .0236 pounds; and the space 706 divided by .0236 equals 30,000 feet; which is the height to which the bullet would travel before losing all of its velocity. The time of flight would be 43 plus seconds. If then it were to fall to the earth (through a vacuum) its time of fall would be 43 plus seconds, and its final velocity 1,385 f. s. The total distance traveled in the upward and downward portions of the trajectory would be 5.68 miles, and the time 1 minute 26 seconds.

While the bullet was passing through the bore of the rifle barrel—say a distance of two feet—the powder would do 706 foot pounds of work upon It, which would manifest itself at the muzzle in the shape of kinetic energy of projectile, the measure of which would be Its 1,385 f. s. velocity. Gravity then takes the bullet In hand, and, after a struggle which lasts 43 seconds, brings It to a standstill at a height of two and one-quarter miles from the earth, having changed its kinetic energy (not destroyed It, for energy Is Indestructible) to potential energy, the energy of position. Gravity then starts the bullet toward the earth, pulling at it with a force of .0236 pounds, and, after passing over a space of 30,000 feet, it has again regained 706 foot pounds of kinetic energy, and must do that amount of work before its velocity Is destroyed.

These conditions can not be exactly fulfilled in practice on account of the resistance of the air, It being Impracticable to produce a vacuum for a distance of two and one-half miles. The resistance of the air shortens both the range and the time of flight of all projectiles, having greater effect on short bullets than on long ones; hence the employment of the latter for long range shooting. For ordinary hunting purposes the short bullets are the best, because they possess greater killing power, for an admissible amount of recoil of weapon, than do the long ones.

Of the various theoretical methods in vogue for deducing the energy of recoil from data of the charge, such as weight and velocity of projectile, etc., Sebert's formula seems to be the best, as it seems to get closest to actual conditions. The weights of bullet, wads and powder charge are easily ascertained before the cartridge is made up. The velocity of projectile is accurately measured by means of the chronograph. But there is another factor, the velocity of the powder and powder gas, which must be considered if we are to arrive at very accurate results. In one system this velocity is estimated at one-half the velocity of the bullet, which must be considered as approximately correct if we reckon with the conditions existing at the instant that the bullet passes out at the muzzle. At that moment the velocity of the gas at the muzzle end of barrel is equal to the velocity of the ball, and the velocity of the gas at the breech is zero, so that it is quite evident the mean velocity is one-half of the maximum or muzzle velocity, at that Instant. The momentum acquired, up to this instant, is easily computed, and the recoil is estimated there from, but the velocity of the weapon in recoil, as Indicated by such computation, is less than the actual velocity, because the powder continues to act after the bullet has parted company with the gun. After the bullet leaves the muzzle the gas attains a velocity much greater than the maximum velocity of bullet, and, as action and reaction are equal, the gun must receive an additional increment of momentum.

For the purpose of measuring the entire energy of the gun, in recoil, the writer constructed the apparatus illustrated herewith. The principle Is that of the ballistic pendulum, and the construction is as nearly devoid of complication as was found practicable to make It automatic and self-recording, and thus do away with small errors that might result from a lack of skill in the operator conducting the tests.

The apparatus is suspended from an overhead beam to which it is rigidly attached by means of the cleats shown. Two oscillating arms are pivoted on a horizontal line near the lower edge of base plate, these arms being provided with hooks at their lower extremities to engage small rings which are tightly lashed to the gun. The rear pivot also carries an Index which is held in any position by an adjustable friction arrangement shown full size in Fig. 2. The index is carried forward on the scale by a pin set in the upper extension of the rear arm. This pin does not pass through the Index, but pushes it forward by coming in contact with its rear side. The scale is a quarter circle and is graduated Into degrees numbered from 1 at the top to 90 at the bottom. The trigger of the rifle is pulled by means of a clockwork mechanism which is lashed to the stock (not shown in cut). The gun is placed in position loaded and cocked, and after its oscillation has ceased the index is turned back very carefully until it just touches the pin.

A record is then made of the number of degrees indicated on the scale, no attempt being made to have it adjusted to zero. The firing mechanism, which is driven by a coiled spring, is set in motion by removing the brake, which is accomplished by a slight pull vertically downward on a very thin piece of wire. This pulling of the brake wire should not impart much motion to the gun, and if a slight oscillation were produced it would nearly, or quite all, be destroyed before the discharge took place, as the clock must run for a few seconds to wind up the cord that pulls the trigger.

When the gun is fired it oscillates and the pin in the arm pushes the Index forward, where It stays on account of the friction of its pivot, while the arm swings back. The second oscillation will be slightly shorter through friction and the pin will not quite reach the Index, so that no harm will be done if the operator fails to catch the gun after the first swing. The number of degrees indicated on the scale are now read off and recorded. The correction is made by subtracting the first number from the second. For Instance, if the index showed 2 degrees before firing and 29 degrees after firing, the gun has recoiled through an arc of 27 degrees.

Having the arc of recoil, we find the energy by multiplying the versed sine of the arc by the length of the arm (In this case 4 feet), and this product by the weight of gun and a portion of the attachments, as follows: To the weight of gun and clock add one-half the weight of front arm, one-third of the weight of rear arm, and, for very accurate experiments, add the resistance of friction of machine, in this case three fourths of an ounce.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART V. (vol 4, No. 6, Jul 1904 - page 476-477)

FEW remarks of a general nature In regard to the ballistic pendulum may not be considered out of place at the present time. The device, in various forms, has been used for many purposes In times past, and has been severely criticized by such eminent authorities as Professor Bashforth and others who have made scientific Investigations of problems In gunnery.

The velocity and momentum of projectiles fired from ordnance, and also from small arms, have been measured with more or less accuracy by means of a form of ballistic pendulum, In which the lower end of the oscillating bar carried a " receiver " which caught and retained the shot. The receiver was generally constructed of wooden blocks, a sufficient amount of timber being employed to effectually overcome the energy of the shot.

It was necessary to know the exact weight of the pendulum, and this varied continually on account of the balls which lodged in it and, of course, added to its weight. Under such circumstances it was necessary to make a different computation for each shot, besides the center of gravity of the pendulum would be liable to change with every shot, and this, if not allowed for, would introduce a small error. A greater error would undoubtedly result from the lack of absolute accuracy in the gun when firing at a range of 300 feet or more, the shot falling to strike the center would cause serious vibration and thus introduce a variation the magnitude of which could not be fairly estimated.

Bashforth says: " The earliest of these experiments of any value were made by Robins (1742), and by Hutton (1783-91). They were remarkably successful considering the inherent defects of the ballistic pendulum which was used by them in the measurement of velocities."

" The distance between the gun and pendulum in Hutton's experiments varied from 30 to 430 feet. The weights of his spherical balls varied from about 1 to 6 pounds, and their diameters from 2 to 3H inches. In the course of these experiments the weight of the pendulum was increased from about 500 to 1.800 pounds."

" In 1839 and 1840 experiments on the resistance of the air to the motion of spherical shot were carried on at Metz by order of the French Minister for War by a commission of which MM. Plobert, Morin and Didion were members. The weights of the projectiles used in these experiments varied from about 11 to 50 pounds, and their diameters from 4 to 8.7 inches. The distance between the gun and the ballistic pendulum varied from about 50 to 330 feet. The mean weight of the receiver was nearly six tons."

" Applying now the formula of M. Didion, and also the new formula derived from the mean of Hutton's experiments with 3 and 6 pound balls, to calculate the resistance of the air to a spherical shot 10 inches in diameter, moving with a velocity of 1,400 feet, we find that M. Didion's formula gives 1,088 pounds, and that the formula derived by him from Hutton's experiments gives 1,189 pounds.

Recent experiments have given 1.204 pounds, showing that Hutton's experiments were more exact than those of Didion, which fact lends to the conclusion that Hutton had reached the limiting weight of shot which could with advantage be employed in conjunction with the ballistic pendulum. Notwithstanding this, very large ballistic and gun pendulums were constructed at the Elswick engine works In 1855 for the experimental establishment under the Ordnance Select Committee at Shoeburyness, which were ' designed to afford data for calculating the initial velocity of cannon shot." But these monsters have never been used for the purpose for which they are said to have been designed. This is probably the most costly ballistic pendulum that ever was constructed. Elaborate models of these unused Instruments may be seen in the rotunda at Woolwich, which are said to have cost $4,000."

It appears from the above that while the small pendulums gave good results, the large ones were less reliable.

My pendulum, which was illustrated in connection with a former chapter, was intended primarily to measure accurately the recoil of small aims, rifles and shotguns; but it will also furnish data from which the velocity of the projectile may be computed, besides illustrating the peculiar differences of recoil between black and smokeless ammunition, and between the various classes of smokeless ammunition. The gun itself being a part of the pendulum, its motion is a true oscillation in the plane of fire, undisturbed by lateral vibrations and tendencies to rotary motion, which must always be a disturbing element in the class of instruments in which the shot is projected into and utilizes its energy in disintegrating a portion of the pendulum. Another feature of my instrument is the trigger-pulling device, the broke of which can be taken off without disturbing the perfect immobility of the gun. This is proven by the grouping of the shots in the bulkhead.

The following table illustrates the character of the work done by the gun pendulum, and these results, taken in connection with the pressure measurements attained by the use of the shoulder meter, furnish data that will enable any one to acquire a very fair understanding of the various features of recoil.

The shoulder meter was designed by the writer to measure in a direct manner the effect of the gun upon the shoulder of the shooter, and to record the measurements in plain pound unit's which every shooter can fully comprehend. The meter is a small instrument which is placed between the butt stock of the gun and the shoulder, and makes a record of whatever pressure may be brought to bear upon it. It is self -registering, and need not be watched closely during action, as the measurement of the highest pressure can be read off at leisure after the shot is fired. While it does not give as uniform results does the ballistic pendulum, still it Is sufficiently reliable to make all ordinary tests, and Its records are more easily understood by the average rifleman:

So many details are shown in the above table that it is not necessary to discuss any of its features at great length. There are many problems and peculiarities presented, but in such a way that the student of gunnery has something tangible to work on.

For convenient reference the different series are numbered in the first column. Comparing Series No. 11 with Series No. 14, we find that the Marlin repeating rifle gave higher velocities than the Pope target rifle, each being loaded the same, the Marlin showing superior energy to the extent of 39 foot pounds, and a flatter trajectory as will be noted in the last column. The probable reason for this is because the Pope rifle is an old one, from which many thousands of shots have been fired during the past ten or twelve years. Its velocity, however, seems to be up to the standard, as appears by a reference to the Winchester catalogue, which gives the trajectory of the .32-40 rifle at 11.32 inches, making it appear as though I had copied my trajectory figures from the Winchester book, which is not the case. All of the above trajectories were made on my own range.

The great difference in recoil produced by black powder and by smokeless is well illustrated in the table. Comparing series No. 1 and No. 4, we note that the Stevens .22 caliber, charged with 5 grains of Laflin & Rand smokeless powder, has a recoil of .426 foot pounds and a trajectory 11.25 Inches high, while the same weapon, charged with 16 grains of black powder, gives a recoil of .490 foot pounds, and the trajectory is 12.90, showing much less velocity. The same rule holds good with the .28 and .32 calibers. The smokeless powder is effective in killing the game, while the black punishes the shooter.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART VI. (vol 5, No. 1, Aug 1904 - page 50-51)

THE Winchester Repeating Arms Co., of New Haven, Conn., have recently placed upon the market a very powerful smokeless rifle of .405 caliber, which, in the hands of a rifleman of average physique, will, on firing, produce a maximum shoulder pressure of 150 pounds. No matter how great the excitement of the moment, the shooter will know whether or not his weapon missed fire. Some sportsmen judge the killing quality of their bullets by the feel of the weapon on the shoulder. In the case of the .405 smokeless the shooter will be fully satisfied.

Last fall a sportsman went up Into Canada after big game, his wife being a member of the party. He had the good fortune to kill a large bull moose with his Winchester .35 caliber smokeless, that being the most powerful small bore made in America at that time. In writing up an account of his trip he mentioned the fact that he found imbedded in the moose a .44 caliber 200 grain bullet, the old wound having healed up; and he asks the question. "Why do not sportsmen use weapons of greater power?" A little farther on he relates that his wife fired at a moose and was knocked down by the recoil of her weapon. He also indicates his intention of procuring a .405 smokeless rifle to use on his next trip. All of these facts are interesting and important, and it is greatly to the credit of the sportsman that he should make such an honest statement, not only for the temporary amusement of the casual reader, but for the sake of the more lasting benefit to the sportsman, and the would-be sportsman.

The .405 smokeless is undoubtedly a quick killer and a hard kicker. The appended table shows some of the qualities of this rifle and projectile, and, for convenient comparison, I have included the .33 and .35 calibers as now made by the Winchester Arms Company, also the two modifications of the .35 caliber as proposed in a previous chapter.

The muzzle velocities are taken from the Winchester catalogue, and the remaining velocities at the various ranges are calculated therefrom, being as close an approximation as could be attained without making a somewhat extended line of experiments for the purpose of establishing the ballistic co-efficient of reduction, c, for each kind of bullet employed.

The energy of the gun in recoil Is calculated by means of a modification of Sebert’s formula, the sole change being the estimated mean velocity of the powder and powder gas, represented [in] the Sebert formula by the constant, 3,000, [indicating] an estimated velocity of the powder and powder gas, during the time that it bears upon the gun, of 3,000 feet per second, which seems to be approximately true in most cases where black powder is employed.

This velocity, and the momentum thereby produced, includes the blast at, and close to the muzzle of the piece, after the projectile has passed out of the bore, and the momentum of the gun, in recoil, must be added to, as long as the gas continues to issue from the muzzle.

Experiments show that this additional increment of momentum to the gun is an important one, and must be accounted for in any theoretical law that can predict the recoil in any case. Smokeless powders in general being much lighter than black, compared with their strength or elastic force of expansion, require a different rule to compute the momentum of the gun, than that which gives good average results with black powder. To get the rule developed to a perfect theoretical basis would require a vast amount of experiment; in fact, each different kind of powder would require a separate value to indicate the velocity of the blast at the muzzle, and this value would probably be found exact only for one particular charge, and one particular barrel, as regards caliber and length.

The few experiments I have made indicate that it is not very difficult to get values sufficiently approximate for most practical purposes, such as will satisfy the average sportsman who uses the rifle for shooting game.

I have assumed a mean velocity of the powder gas of 4,000 f. s. for the .30 caliber smokeless powders, such as are used in charging the shells of the .33, .35 and .405 caliber rifles, and this value gives results which correspond very closely with actual experiment.

It has been a matter of much speculation as to the effect on recoil of holding the rifle firmly to the shoulder, or, in fact, of holding the rifle in any manner. The figures ordinarily given represent the energy of the piece providing it is free to move while the powder gas is acting upon it, but such a condition is not present in the practical use of the weapon, as Its motion is interfered with by the shooter, hence it falls short of the full amount of energy that it would otherwise develop.

The shoulder meter devised by the writer has served to solve this problem, if not with extreme exactness, still with sufficient accuracy to make a valuable addition to our stock of knowledge of the important matter of recoil. Experiments with the meter show that, in the case of the .32-40 rifle, fired from the shoulder, the energy of recoil is reduced by the interference of the shooter, an amount equal to the reduction of energy which would follow the addition of 5 pounds weight to the weapon. This in the case of a weapon weighing 7.5 pounds. With other rifles, a trifle heavier, or lighter, the results would practically be the same, so far as the recoil is concerned, holding the gun to the shoulder is equivalent to adding about 5 pounds to its weight. On this basis the last column of the table herewith presented was computed. The energy of recoil of the 8.5 pound rifle was computed on a 13.5 pound basis, and this gives the actual recoil of the 8.5 pound rifle when fired from the shoulder. The mean velocity of the powder and gas, in this case, was taken at 4,000 f. s.

In the case of very strong powders, such as the Laflin & Rand .45 caliber, the velocity of the gas, on escape at the muzzle, appears to be upward of 10,000 feet per second, giving mean velocities of 5,000 to 5.500 f. s.

These figures were arrived at through experiments with the ballistic pendulum, which is probably the most accurate and reliable instrument ever devised for measuring the recoil of a gun.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART VII. (vol 5, No. 2, Sep 1904 - page 132-133)

ONE of the most important parts of the performance of a sporting rifle is its regularity of shooting; its accuracy. An ever-present cause of irregularity is the residue of the exploded powder charge which changes the condition of the bore from shot to shot. Another cause, sometimes present, is the wearing away of a portion of the surface of the projectile which comes in contact with the bore of the gun, and If some of these particles adhere to the gun they are liable to form an interference of greater or less magnitude to the passage of the next shot. Lead bullets are lubricated for the purpose of preventing the clogging of the rifle, and this is more or less effective when light to medium charges are employed, but when heavy charges are used it has been found essential to cover the bullet with linen or paper patches, or metallic jackets. Patched bullets are used to best advantage in target shooting in such cases as sufficient time is allowed the shooter to enable him to clean his weapon carefully between shots. They may, however, be used in a dirty gun, and some slight advantage gained, especially on a damp day; or, in case the precaution is taken to breathe through the barrel and thus moisten it before loading. Such matters may be attended to with regularity in a target-shooting competition, but in hunting they might be neglected for lack of time, or entirely forgotten; and it is, therefore, considered advisable to use jacketed bullets In all cases where high velocities are employed.

Black powder is objectionable for hunting purposes on account of the large amount of residue it leaves in the bore of the gun, the dense cloud of smoke which dissipates very slowly, and the excessive noise and recoil which always accompany its use. It, however, has the good qualities of thorough and uniform ignition, and freedom from excessive pressures, even when increased charges are used. Of course, an increase in the black powder charge results in an increase of pressure, but the pressures do not mount up as rapidly as is the case with nearly all smokeless powders. Black powder is also less sensitive to slight variations in the resistance of the bullet, and it is still much used for target shooting for these reasons. The fouling of the gun is much reduced by priming the black powder loads with a small quantity of bulk smokeless powder, such as DuPont No. 1 rifle, the quantity being generally about one seventh of the entire charge, by measure. A further reduction of the fouling is attained by the employment of a lubricating wad over the powder; even in the case of a muzzle loader, where the bore is partly cleaned by ramming the bullet home, the wad is generally found to be a decided advantage. The greatest advantage of the wad, however, is in the case of the breech loader when it is fired several times without cleaning. Military cartridges have been charged with black powder, pasteboard wads, lubricating wads and paper patched bullets; and such ammunition has given very fair results in target shooting at 600 yards range, a great many shots being fired without cleaning, and with no traces of lead in the barrel. This is a matter of personal knowledge, the writer having been a member of a team which used such ammunition in the interstate match at Creedmore.

But for the rough usage that ammunition is apt to get on a trip after large game, the paper patched bullet is not recommended. For such purposes nothing has been found as satisfactory as copper or steel mantled bullets, especially those in which a portion of the head, or point, remains uncovered, to upset, or " mushroom," on impact. It seems to be an absolute necessity to have the leaden bullet covered with some anti-friction material in all cases of high velocity, say 1,600 foot seconds, and upward. In the old days of black powder and low velocities, patches and mantles were not considered necessary, especially in the case of the breech-loader. The muzzle-loading target and hunting rifles generally used patched bullets, which is quite in line with modern theory, as they employed velocities much above those in vogue with the early breech-loaders. Black powder is still used to a limited extent, even by those who under stand its inferior execution, because it is less apt to rust and pit the rifle than is smokeless powder. High velocities and mantled bullets are also very destructive to the rifle barrel, causing it to wear away rapidly. The excessive erosion is supposed to be partly due to the heat developed by the exploding powder and the friction. Modern arms generally have a very steep pitch of rifling, which adds materially to the friction and the development of excessive heat. A steep pitch of rifling is necessary in a long-range rifle, because the projectile is long and therefore requires a high rate of rotary velocity to keep it approximately point on. The ordinary hunting weapon is, or should be, a short range rifle, carrying a short bullet, and this may best be handled by a long, easy pitch of rifling, which is favorable to a reduction of friction, and involves a minimum of heat and erosion.

The .30-30 smokeless rifles which handle jacketed bullets of 160 to 170 grains weight are generally given a nine, ten or twelve-inch pitch of rifling, which is much shorter than necessary, and adds much to the friction, and, consequently, heating of both barrel and projectile, tending to destroy the shape of the latter, causing wild shooting, and also shortening the life of the barrel. This error in the twist is on a par with the error of adapting the short range sporting rifle to the long range military cartridge, with its accompanying wear and tear, and kick. If the .30-30 rifle were given a twist of one turn in fifteen or sixteen inches it would shoot finer and last longer, besides having the invaluable feature of handling lead bullets well, and thus furnishing the sportsman a chance to practice at target without spending a small fortune for ammunition and for guns worn out before their proper time. The .30 caliber bullet used in the service ammunition of the United States Government rifle weighs 220 grains, and a ten-inch or twelve-inch pitch of rifling gives it ample rotary velocity to make it shoot well up to 1,000 yards, proving that the spin now given the 160- grain bullet is much in excess of its actual requirements. The writer holds to the opinion that excessive spin, even if it could be obtained without damaging friction in the gun, always results in a loss of accuracy. This view is exactly opposite to an opinion expressed in a sportsmen's Journal a short while ago by a man who manufactured and used target rifles for almost half a century.

The rifles of forty years ago were often cut on a pitch of five or six feet, while some of the modern small -bores have one complete turn of rifling seven or eight inches, and the probability is that we have " Jumped out of the frying-pan into the fire."

In the old days it was supposed that the drift from wind could be controlled by increasing the charge of powder, thus increasing the velocity of translation of the bullet, and shortening its time of flight. This was partially successful, but it was later discovered that a better plan was to lengthen the projectile, thus giving it greater weight compared to the resistance of the air. Then lengthening of the bullet made it necessary to shorten the pitch of rifling in order to get sufficient rotary velocity to prevent it from tumbling end over end, and losing velocity very rapidly, besides going wild from excessive drift. The invention of the jacketed bullet allowed a further shortening of the pitch of rifling, and the rifle makers went to extremes because the mantled bullet will stand a lot of abuse of that kind before all of its bad features become apparent.

The .32-40 special is one of our best hunting rifles, mainly because of its moderate twist, one turn in sixteen inches, which makes it effective with jacketed bullets for hunting, and lead bullets for target practice.

Either black or smokeless powder may be used in this class of weapon, the latter being better if many shots are fired without cleaning, for the reason that less fouling will accumulate in the bore.

Some riflemen object to the use of smokeless powder in any case, for fear of rusting the gun. It seems to be a settled fact that smokeless powders do have a tendency to oxidize the bore of a rifle if it is not well cleaned within a reasonable time after firing.

If a smokeless load is fired during the day the rifle should be cleaned in the evening. I have known of cases in which a rifle was fired with smokeless powder on the forenoon of a damp day, and by evening the bore was pitted. How ever, such a result is an exception to the rule. The sportsman who uses black powder for hunting must be satisfied with low velocities and low killing power, compared to the recoil of the weapon. Small and medium loads of black powder may give fairly accurate shooting with out cleaning, on a damp day, but tor all kinds of weather, smokeless gives better average results, not only in accuracy but in velocity as well, even if ordinary lead bullets are used. The owner of an old-style black powder rifle is not necessarily restricted to black powder charges, as there are many kinds of smokeless now manufactured that are suitable to use in such weapons, the pressure being kept down by employing a large air space. The kinds of powder more particularly referred to in this connection are the fine grained, dense nitros, such as the Laflin & Hand " Sharpshooter," " Bulls-eye " and " Unique;" also many of the shotgun powders. These powders must not be used in full loads; a certain amount of air space must be provided to keep the chamber pressure within the safety limit. These charges can be adjusted to give equal or greater velocity than can be attained with black powder in the same gun, and the accuracy is, generally, much in favor of the smokeless charge. This increase of accuracy is not primarily attributable to the air space, but to the lack of residue of the high-grade powders. The large air space employed in this class of ammunition is, apparently, a necessary evil, and if this view of the case be the correct one, we may expect the best results from the shorter shells, at least so far as accuracy is concerned.

We have, at the present time, several kinds of " bulk " smokeless rifle powders, such as the DuPont smokeless rifle No. 1, which are loaded in the black powder shells in sufficient quantity to do away with the objectionable air space, but what is gained in this regard is lost through the increase of residue left in the bore. While these powders are much cleaner than black, or semi-smokeless, they are not as clean as the dense nitros, and therefore not generally considered as suitable for use in connection with lead bullets, especially in the case of quick twist rifles which require clean burning powders to keep down, the friction which is always a troublesome factor with a short pitch of rifling.

The objectionable feature of the air space is its interference with the proper combustion of the powder. This is especially noticeable in the case of black powder, where a small air space is sometimes employed to reduce the chamber pressure and lessen the amount of upset of bullet, and for other purposes; and it has been found that the space between powder and bullet should not exceed about five per cent, of the total chamber space, If the highest grade of accuracy is to be maintained.

With smokeless powders it is different, more than fifty per cent, of air space being sometimes employed without great loss of accuracy. The case may be generally stated: The less the air space the more complete the combustion of the powder and the cleaner the gun.

To clean a rifle thoroughly, more especially after firing with smokeless powder, a preparation containing acetone will be found useful, and probably the best preparation of this class is the one formulated by Dr. Walter G. Hudson of New York, and is as follows:

HUDSON'S FORMULA.

*Any illuminating oil that is free from acid may be substituted for astral.

NOTE: It is ILLEGAL in the US to have any post 1973 [?] sperm whale oil. Finding pre-’73 SWO that is still good would be a trick. Check out Nye Clock Oil, or just plain old Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF). ATF was developed to replace SWO...

While the above compound was originally intended only as a cleaner. It has been found useful also to prevent rust.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART VIII. (vol 5, No. 3, Oct 1904 - page 217-219)

IT HAS been supposed by many riflemen that the blast at the muzzle is accountable for much of the irregular shooting we get. Many arguments have been advanced in an attempt to show how the bullet could be deflected from its course by the gas issuing from the muzzle at a velocity much higher than that of the projectile. It is quite evident that the gas and powder dirt which follows the projectile and collides with it after it has passed out of the bore, must increase its velocity of translation toward the target, or, at least, have a tendency in that direction. It is a force, a pressure, a push; and its tendency toward increased velocity must be effective, so long as the pressure exerted exceeds that of the air upon the head of the bullet, which is approximately, fifteen pounds per square inch, when there is no motion, and much greater when the projectile is moving at a high velocity.

The assumption of increased velocity of the shot after it leaves the gun is not entirely based on supposition derived from more or less uncertain conditions, but has been proven by actual measurement.

The experiments referred to were made by Dr. Albert Cushing Crehore, assistant professor of physics. Dartmouth College, and Dr. George Owen Squier, first lieutenant, third artillery. U. S. A., between the dates of the twenty-seventh of December, 1894, and the twelfth of January. 1895, at the United States Artillery School, Fort Monroe, Va., and a detailed report of same was published In the " Journal of the United States Artillery." dated July. 1895. A few quotations from this report will be found interesting and valuable in this connection:

" The principal ballistic result obtained from these experiments may be said to be the locating of a maximum point in the velocity curve outside of the gun. This maximum point is, in the case of the gun and conditions of loading described, at six or seven feet from the muzzle of the gun—certainly more than five feet and less than ten—or about twenty-five calibers in front of the muzzle. The increase in velocity from the muzzle to the maximum point is large, more than forty foot-seconds. The muzzle velocity being about 1,600 feet, this increase is about two and one-half per cent of the whole. " The decrease in velocity beyond the maximum point is comparatively gradual, obeying the true law of the resistance of the air so that the projectile must travel about a hundred feet before the velocity is reduced to that which it actually had at the muzzle."

" The gun used was a 3.2 -inch B. L. field rifle. No. 56, model of 1892, and the service charge of three and three-quarters pounds of I. K. H. powder was uniformly employed. The projectiles were common shell, so selected that each weighed 13 lbs 6 oz."

In these experiments the velocities were taken at short intervals near the muzzle of the gun by means of a polarizing photo-chronograph, operated by an electric current, the Instrument being capable of extremely fine measurements through the agency of a massless shutter to the camera, the same being instantaneous in action.

The exceptional accuracy of this test leaves no room to doubt the ability of the blast to accelerate the velocity of the bullet for a short distance after parting company with the gun. Some earlier tests by Professor Boys of London, England, established the fact that the small projectiles from the new smokeless military rifles showed increased velocities of between three and four per cent, after passing the muzzle.

Some experiments by the writer in September, 1893, with a black powder rifle of .25 caliber, when measuring the rotary pitch of bullet at various distances from the gun, showed very plainly that the blast at the muzzle increased the velocity of projectile approximately three per cent.

Similar tests with the Pope .32 caliber rifle with black powder, and also with smokeless, proved that the blast of the smokeless charge has an effect on the bullet quite equal to that of the black powder charge; a plausible explanation being that while the smokeless blast has less inertia it has greater velocity than the black (as has been shown in a previous chapter), and. apparently, the superior velocity makes up what is lost in weight and inertia, so that it is able to impart as much additional momentum to the projectile as is the blast from the black powder charge.

Several years ago the question arose as to whether this blast is liable to deflect the bullet off its true course and thus produce irregular and inaccurate shooting. I had in mind a scheme whereby a small portion of the gas pressure would be removed from the bullet just be fore it left the bore of the rifle. The plan was to cut slots in the barrel, from the muzzle down as far as necessary, exactly following the rifling grooves, and leaving the lands stand to act as guides for the bullet, thus holding it to a true course, while the gas would escape through the slots, or at least, a small portion of it would expend its energy in that way, thus mitigating to some extent the untoward tendency, if such existed, of the blast upon the base of the bullet. The scheme was not put into execution at the time on account of the serious mechanical difficulties involved in properly blotting the rifle barrel.

A few years later Mr. Perry E. Kent of Utica, N. Y., applied for a patent on a scheme of ventilating a rifle barrel for the purpose of reducing the muzzle blast, and increasing the accuracy of the piece. Mr. Kent's method is to drill a few small holes in the barrel very close to the muzzle, thus relieving the pressure after the base of the bullet has passed a point about an inch or a trifle less from the muzzle. Several prominent riflemen became interested and made some experiments in the same direction, but, in some cases, ventilated the bore farther down, thus giving the gas more time to escape before the bullet passed out at the muzzle, and of course reducing the pressure of the blast upon the base of the bullet. These experiments generally resulted so far as I have been able to learn, in no increase in accuracy, nor was there any other benefit derived.

Having been one of the experimenters, my experience may prove interesting. About two years ago I resurrected my abandoned scheme of several years ago, and cut six slots in a Stevens .22-15-60 barrel, starting at the muzzle and leaving nothing but the lands stand. The grooving was cut clear through the barrel full width, and as the lands are very narrow the slots are wide, thus allowing a remarkably free exit for gas. After cutting the six slots down about three-eighths of an inch a test was made at the target, but there was no improvement in the accuracy, nor any perceptible diminution of the pressure. After slotting down to five-eighths of an inch a slight decrease of pressure was noted, but no increase in the accuracy. The slots were then carried down about one inch, and, as no improvement in the accuracy resulted, it was decided to take up a different line of experiments to hunt out the cause, if possible, of the failure. What was most desired was to get a more accurate knowledge of the stream of gas and partially burned powder that followed the bullet out of the bore. To this end, a target was arranged to pass rapidly across the plain of fire, which, when fired at, at close range would not only show the imprint of the bullet, but of what followed it.

The arrangement is plainly shown in the illustration which is reproduced from a photograph taken in September, 1902. The circular target is thirty inches in diameter, and made of ordinary pasteboard, such as is used in the fabrication of shoe boxes, hat boxes, etc. This was set up 12 inches from the muzzle of the gun and speeded up to one-third of the velocity of the fired bullet. As the target was passing rapidly from left to right, the point of the bullet made one impression in the target, the base another, and the body of the bullet connected the two, giving the appearance of having been made by a " tipping " bullet, otherwise a " keyhole." The bullets, however, were traveling fairly point on as was proved by firing when the target was not in motion in which cases the bullet holes were round. It was the motion of the target which produced the elongated hole, and, as the target was moving toward the right the imprint of the base of the bullet was toward the left. Similarly the stream of gas, smoke, and partially burned powder left a clearly defined trail on the target from right to left, a trail two feet long on the target, indicating a stream approximately six feet long issuing from gun. These were the results attained, and they indicate, that, to get rid of this six feet of gas and debris we would be compelled to ventilate a long section of the barrel, probably four-fifths of its length in any case, and this would result in velocities so low as to be of no practical value.

After making this discovery I took up the slotted barrel again and cut two of the slots, on opposite sides of the barrel, down to a point equal to 26 calibers from the muzzle. The barrel, which always was a fair shooter, was tested from a good rest, using telescopic sight, at various stages of the work, and never showed any marked increase or decrease in accuracy. It shot closer some days than others, just as any rifle will do when no changes are made to it, or to the ammunition. When I found that no change in the accuracy resulted from a very thorough ventilation for a distance equal to 25 calibers, I decided that it was scarcely necessary to continue the experiment by slotting farther down the barrel, and the extreme difficulty of doing such work by hand was a factor of no small importance. As the slotted muzzle was of no use, and increased the difficulty of cleaning, it was cut off in sections, the rifle being shot for accuracy after each cut, with the result that it maintained its old standard of accuracy throughout.

The moving target also taught another valuable lesson. Old hunters have often claimed that their missing game fired at with the rifle was caused by the interference of a small twig which caused the bullet to glance and leave its true line of flight. The moving target, or "whizzer", as we called it, deflected the .32-caliber 200-grain bullet about one and one-half inches at 100 yards, and the .22-caliber 57-grain bullet, about one-fourth of an inch more at the same distance.

Before dismissing the subject of the muzzle blast I might mention another device that was tried in the attempt to get away from its supposed demoralizing influence. I had Mr. Barlow, of the Ideal Manufacturing Co., make me a mould to cast a hemispherical base, and tried this bullet in my .32-caliber Pope rifle, the Idea being, that in case the bullet tipped slightly, it would still part the following gas symmetrically, and would, therefore, not be thrown off its course. A test of this bullet showed it to be equal in accuracy to another which was similar in every respect, excepting that it had a flat base, and both were beaten slightly by the Pope bullet, which was specially designed for the gun, and which had a flat base.

I am greatly Indebted to F. W. Mann, of Milford, Mass., who built the "whizzer", and his brother, William E. Mann, on whose farm the testing range is located, where this and many other valuable experiments were made.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART IX. (vol 5, No. 4, Jan 1905 - page ?)

Missing. I wonder if the IX article was forgotten, and they ran XI.... There are no matching pages for the Sporting Rifles article, maybe someone cut it out?

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART X. (vol 5, No. 5, Dec 1904 - page 389-390)

THE killing power of a projectile depends mainly on two factors; first, its diameter after upset, providing there be any upset resulting from its collision with the game, and. second, its velocity and depth of penetrations. The diameter of the bullet before impact is generally considered to be the same as the diameter of the bore from which it was fired, but a bullet may cut a hole larger than its actual diameter, measured at right angles to its longitudinal axis, even without upset, and when traveling at low velocity. This occurs when it is not traveling fairly point on; when it is tipping; or technically, when its longitudinal axis does not coincide with the tangent of the trajectory.

In target shooting this peculiarity of flight is indicated by more or less oblong holes in the target. In extreme cases called " keyholes." It has been observed that the most uniform flights are made by projectiles that travel approximately point on. and that poor shooting weapons are generally addicted to keyholing. The rifle maker therefore endeavors to comply as closely as possible with all conditions necessary to keep the bullet approximately point on at all moderate ranges, and avoid tippers, which in exaggerated cases have spiral flights, and lose velocity rapidly on account of the excessive resistance of the air. As these tippers are an exceptional case we will not consider them further in this connection, but take up the case of such missiles as travel properly point on. When a leaden bullet traveling at high velocity strikes an animal, the head of the bullet is up set, i. e., shortened and enlarged in diameter, in which condition it generally produces a greater shock than would be the case with a similar projectile, but made of a hard metal which would not upset on impact. The principal exception to this rule is the case in which the latter, through its greater depth of penetration reaches a vital part, and the former fails to penetrate to a sufficient depth.

In the case of the black powder rifle taking grooved and lubricated bullets, the velocity is generally so low that it is necessary to use bullets of special forms in order to get the best results in regard to upsetting and mushrooming qualities and their accompanying deadly effect on game. It was discovered many years ago that a cylindrical cavity in the head of the bullet caused it to expand with certainty on impact at a very moderate velocity. In some cases, a small hollow copper cylinder was inserted in the cavity, the probable result of which was preventing the head of the shot from breaking up into small fragments.

About the beginning of the year 1897. Dr. S. A. Skinner, of Hoosac Falls. N. Y., invented an expansive or mushroom bullet, which possessed some features of superiority over those in general use. The Skinner bullet had a conical cavity in the forward end, which was filled with a substance somewhat resembling wax, and this was covered with a thin leaden cap which formed the point of the bullet, the entire combination being finished to shape in a steel swage. These bullets were .38 caliber, without cannelures, and were patched with paper. Through the courtesy of the inventor I was enabled to test the mushrooming qualities of these missiles by firing into a target composed of wooden boards and snow as follows: First a pine board three eighths of an inch thick. backed by 6 inches of snow, then a pine board seven-eighths of an inch thick, backed by 6 inches of snow, then a poplar board three eighths of an inch thick, backed by a sufficient column of snow to stop and hold the bullet in every case. The rifle was a .38-55 Remington, and was charged with 23 grains of Kings smokeless powder No. 3, giving the 245-grain bullet a very moderate velocity, probably not exceeding 1200 feet second.

The following is an example of the work of the Skinner bullet: Penetrated first board, leaving a hole at exit nine-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, passed through six inches of heavy snow, perforated second board, hole three quarters Inch diameter, point of bullet lodged in snow three inches further on, remainder of bullet traveling on perforated third board with a five-eighths inch hole, and finally lodged in the snow beyond, having penetrated a total depth of 24 Inches. The snow used In this test had fallen two weeks previously, had partially melted and frozen several times, and was wet and heavy at the time of the experiment, the specific gravity being .53, taking water as unity. In this experiment the bullet opened symmetrically, as was the case in every test made with the Skinner projectile.

On the same day, February 24, 1897, I tested another style of mushroom bullet of .38 caliber and 240 grains weight. This had a cylindrical cavity one-eighth inch diameter and three-eighths deep in the head; and when fired into snow, specific gravity .53, was broken into several parts, the three fragments of the head which were recovered, weighing together 83 grains. The base, weighing 134 grains, penetrated to a depth of 24 inches and was mushroomed to a diameter of seventeen thirty-seconds of an inch. A Skinner bullet fired into the same bank of snow was also broken, the base which penetrated 24 inches weighed 188 grains, and was mushroomed to three-fourths of an inch diameter. In this experiment the Skinner bullet was distinctly ahead, having carried a larger diameter to the same depth.

In another experiment, a conical cavity was made in the head of the .38-caliber bullet, the cavity being five -eighths of an inch in depth, and one-eighth inch diameter in front. This was fired into snow the first 20 inches of which was specific gravity .19, and the balance specific gravity .51. The total penetration was 39 inches; the recovered bullet weighed 239 grains, and the expanded head measured eleven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. In this case the head of the bullet was not broken off because of the low specific gravity of the target. In the case of shooting game, the bullet meets with greater resistance than was the case in any of the experiments herein enumerated, no matter where the animal is hit, so that it is quite evident that a large cavity in a bullet is undesirable, as it is sure to weaken it to such an extent that it is almost certain to break up on collision with animal tissue, and the smaller particles quickly lose their energy and penetrative qualities. Another bad feature which is very common in ammunition of this class, is that the cavity in the bullet is too deep, it is carried too far down into the body, and. if the hollow part of the projectile breaks up, as it is liable to do even if the cavity is small in diameter, the base part which remains intact is too light to retain sufficient momentum to carry it clear through a large animal.

The lack of strength of the head of the Skinner bullet is the main objection to it, making it too liable to injury in ordinary handling. The cap on the head of the bullet is liable to be displaced or lost. The good points are the small conical cavity, and the filling of this cavity with a yielding materiel, the composition of which I believe remains a secret with Dr. Skinner. The thin metallic cap could he soldered to the bullet, or it could be dispensed with altogether. The cavity could be left empty, as is ordinarily the case, and would work fairly well in most cases if not too wide and deep. To increase the effectiveness, it would be well to fill the cavity with bees' wax, or something similar, which would cause the head of the bullet to expand with certainty, regardless of what part of the animal was hit.

The foregoing remarks apply more particularly to the old line of rifles and ammunition, in which very moderate velocities are the rule, but the same principles would apply, to some extent, to the modern smokeless weapons with their partly mantled projectiles, the main difference being that with high velocity projectiles smaller cavities would be required. In this way the very small calibers could be made fairly effective on large game. The cavity in the head of the bullet would cause such a great amount of expansion that the forward end of the jacket would be split open and the forward end of the bullet would expand to such a diameter that it would generally expend all of its energy on the animal hit, and thus produce the necessary amount of shock required to kill quickly. The general idea amongst sportsmen is that it is necessary to use a rifle of large caliber to kill large game quickly, and it can not be denied that rifles of large caliber, which produce high velocities, are addicted to hard kicking propensities, making them not only unpleasant to shoot, but reducing the accuracy as well. I do not mean to assert that the rifles are inaccurate; they will shoot very close to the point aimed at, but the great difficulty lies in the aiming, and pulling, without undue bracing up and flinching. It is possible for any healthy man of average strength to learn to shoot accurately with a rifle that does not kick more than 100 pounds, i. e., that does not exert a pressure exceeding 100 pounds on the shoulder of the shooter. But, to enable any one to shoot well off-hand, with a weapon giving that amount of recoil it is necessary that he should do a large amount of preliminary practice, an amount much in excess of what the average sportsman is willing to submit to. On the other hand, any one can learn to shoot a small bore rifle with light recoil, with very little practice, and. if he will stick to weapons of this class and refuse to shoot the other kind, he will never fall into the bad habits of bracing up, and flinching, two of the most common errors, and the most disastrous known in off-hand rifle shooting.

It is a common custom with the back-woods guides, and others who know very little about rifles, to spin long yarns about the lack of killing power of small bore rifles, and pay glowing tribute to the lightning-like execution of the big bores, totally oblivious of the fact that the light bullet generally misses its mark.

THE SPORTING RIFLE.

By E. A. Leopold.

PART XI. (vol 5, No. 6, Jan 1905 - page 494-495)

IT IS generally supposed by those who have not made a special study of the subject, that the killing power of a projectile depends mainly on its diameter and its depth ' of penetration. This estimate of the matter often leads to large errors, as one of the important factors, viz., velocity, is left out of the count. In these days of small bores and high and ever increasing velocities, this matter carries with it a significance which very few even faintly realize. Those riflemen who have always used black powder rifles, more especially those who have always used the old style breech loaders with their necessarily low velocities, are honest in their statements that they do not believe that the modern small bore can be a good killer. They underrate the power of the modern arm because they have failed to investigate the peculiar qualities of velocity as applied- in this case.

Some of the old-time hunters who used muzzle-loading rifles of the better grade, were somewhat familiar with the peculiar shocking power which accompanies great velocity of impact, as their weapons taking the patched bullet, would stand a heavy load of black powder without going wild. They learned that a slight increase in the powder charge resulted in a very large increase of killing power.

About ten years ago the writer made some experiments with a view of investigating the cause of the extraordinary killing quality of high velocity projectiles, the plan being to fire into different materials, such as water, clay, mud, etc., but the most valuable results were obtained by firing into snow at different densities.

On the 15th day of February, 1895, I fired a series of bullets into freshly fallen snow of low specific gravity, using a Pope muzzle loading rifle of .32 calibre, using three grains of American wood powder, and thirty-six grains of Hazard black Fg powder, the charge being equivalent in propellant force to 44 grains of Fg. The 200-grain bullet was 1 to 43 tin and lead, and the average depth of penetration was eleven feet. The bullets did not mushroom and they made a hole in the snow one inch in diameter near the point of entrance which gradually tapered down to the diameter of the bullet. On the following day, the snow having become a trifle more dense, the penetration, with the same charge, was nine feet, and the bullets were very slightly upset, increasing their diameters from .322 of an inch to .323 of an inch. The diameter of the hole in the snow was as nearly as could be measured one inch, the same as in the first test. In the next test the same gun and bullet were used, but the powder charge was increased to 72 grains Hazard Fg, which was the maximum with which this gun would maintain fine accuracy at the target, as had previously been determined. With this charge the depth of penetration was only seven feet, but the bullet was expanded to one-half inch diameter at the head. The hole it made commenced at one and one-sixteenth inches diameter, at two inches depth it was two inches diameter, at three inches two and one-half inches diameter, at ten inches two and one-eighth inches diameter, at twenty-four inches one inch diameter, at fifty-five inches three-fourths of an inch diameter, and at eighty-four inches one-half inch diameter. The results of these experiments proved that the collision of the projectile with the particles of snow caused them to become projectiles also, which radiating out from the centre produced an opening large enough for a small-sized cannon shot to pass through without touching.

It will also be noted that by increasing the powder charge 63 per cent, the size of the hole was increased 150 per cent, in diameter and 525 per cent, in volume.

In the ease of shooting game this is called an explosive effect, and, although it is generally much less on account of the comparative toughness of the material penetrated, yet it is very pronounced in the softer parts, especially in the brain, and, no doubt, has a very material effect in the way of shock in any part of an animal. The killing power of nearly all of the most modern black powder rifles can be very much improved by slightly increasing the velocity of the bullet, and this is easily accomplished by the substitution of smokeless powders in case the rifle action is strong enough to resist the increased strain.

The kinds of powder mostly employed for such purpose are the " low pressure " smokeless, of which "Sharpshooter" is a fair sample; and the coarse grained high-pressure smokeless powders, such as Du Pont "30 Cal." and Laflin & Rand " W. A." When the high pressure powders are employed it is requisite that great care be exercised in determining the proper charge so as to leave an air space of proper proportions In the shell, as solid loading would likely result in a ruptured weapon.

The Du Pont Company recommend 24 grains of .30 Cal. powder for the .32-40-165 rifle, which would give 40 per cent, air space, and I should certainly consider it a very safe load for a black powder rifle if in good condition.

A very effective load for the Pope .28 Cal. rifle, is 21 grains of Du Pont .30 Cal. powder which gives an air space of 20 per cent., and, with my bluff headed 126-grain bullet, the 200-yard trajectory is a. trifle under ten inches high.

This weapon does good execution on small game, the explosive effect in case of a brain shot at short range, being something terrific. The shell used is the old Pope mould holding 25 grains of black powder, leaving room to seat the bullet over all of the grooves. If a heavier bullet is used the powder charge should be decreased. This weapon loaded with smokeless powder, as described, is sufficiently powerful to kill all kinds of game up to the common Virginia deer. The recoil, as indicated by the shoulder meter is 32 pounds, i. e., the maximum pressure of the gun upon the shoulder in the act of firing is 32 pounds.

The same rifle charged with 11 grains of Laflin & Rand .45 Cal powder and 126-grain bullet gives a 200-yard trajectory slightly under 11 inches in height. In this case the air space is 54 per cent, of the total powder space, and it is probably unsafe to make it any less because the powder is fine-grain and quick burning, the large air space being necessary to form a cushion to give the ball time to start, other wise a dangerous pressure would result. The term " low pressure " as applied to such loads may lead to a misconception of the real nature of the powder. The comparatively low pressure is due entirely to the large air space, and the powder is clean, dense, and quick, and would burst the gun if loaded in the ordinary manner.

"Marksman" powder is not suitable for this rifle, as it requires a still larger air space, and this shell is too small to accommodate it. In a former chapter I spoke of the unsuitableness of the .236 calibre rifle for killing the largest game, but it must be taken into consideration that the high velocity of its projectile, 2500 feet per second, makes it a more deadly weapon than some of the larger calibres having considerably lower velocities, and this would be the more apparent in the case of fore and aft shots where the high velocity bullet would be likely to expend all, or nearly all, of its energy within the animal.

I have recently received a letter from Canada from a rancher who has had considerable experience with smokeless rifles, especially the .236 caliber. In reference to the .236 he says: "I used a gun taking this ammunition a great deal on game some years ago and also know other ranchers around here who do so right along, and with the best possible results." • • • "if you had used the .236 on deer and antelope, wolves, etc.. you could not have written as you did." • • • "I never reloaded full charges and knew the shells would not stand it. Of course that was before the primers were found to be responsible for the rapid deterioration of the shells. Eventually I disposed of the gun, principally because of the great cost of its cartridges, making practice shooting almost impossible." • • • "I turned to rifles taking our service ammunition. I reload with Savage bullets for hunting and obtain capital results, but for some reason or other, the .236 calibre was the best meat gun I ever owned. It may have been partly on account of better luck with it, but I expect to get another weapon taking this ammunition, especially since non-mercurial primers have opened up.

There are other factors in favor of the .236 calibre, besides its "explosive" and shocking effects on game, and they are Its practically Hut trajectory at ordinary short hunting ranges, and the short time of flight of the bullet from the hunter to the game.

The slight drop of the bullet makes it un necessary to raise the sight or hold over, for any shot at any ordinary hunting range, and the short time of (light of the bullet makes it unnecessary to hold far ahead of moving game. The great advantage of being able to hold dead on instead of over and ahead will be appreciated by the experienced hunter after due reflection.